CrestSphere

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My daughter just graduated college with a degree in Computer Science and landed a job with an insurance company in their IT department. What makes an IT person successful?

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Discover five steps from ReliableSite that will help you start a web hosting company using dedicated server infrastructure. No equipment, just your brand.

23/08/2021

COMPUTER NETWORK | LAYERS OF OSI MODEL

Prerequisite : Basics of Computer Networking

OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It has been developed by ISO – ‘International Organization of Standardization‘, in the year 1974. It is a 7 layer architecture with each layer having specific functionality to perform. All these 7 layers work collaboratively to transmit the data from one person to another across the globe.

1. Physical Layer (Layer 1) :

The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices. The physical layer contains information in the form of bits. It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices. When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.

The functions of the physical layer are :

*Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at bit level.
*Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits sent per second.
*Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies the way in which the different, devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star or mesh topolgy.
*Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines the way in which the data flows between the two connected devices. The various transmission modes possible are: Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.

* Hub, Repeater, Modem, Cables are Physical Layer devices.
** Network Layer, Data Link Layer and Physical Layer are also known as Lower Layers or Hardware Layers.

2. Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2) :

The data link layer is responsible for the node to node delivery of the message. The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error free from one node to another, over the physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of DLL to transmit it to the Host using its MAC address.
Data Link Layer is divided into two sub layers :

*Logical Link Control (LLC)
*Media Access Control (MAC)

The packet received from Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the frame size of NIC(Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the header.

The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address Resolution Protocol) request onto the wire asking “Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will reply with its MAC address.

The functions of the data Link layer are :

*Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
*Physical addressing: After creating frames, Data link layer adds physical addresses (MAC address) of sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
*Error control: Data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
*Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get corrupted thus , flow control coordinates that amount of data that can be sent before receiving acknowledgement.
*Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, MAC sub-layer of data link layer helps to determine which device has control over the channel at a given time.

* Packet in Data Link layer is referred as Frame.
** Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and device drivers of host machines.
*** Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.

3. Network Layer (Layer 3) :

Network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in the header by network layer.
The functions of the Network layer are :

*Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to destination. This function of network layer is known as routing.
*Logical Addressing: In order to identify each device on internetwork uniquely, network layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in the header by network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.

* Segment in Network layer is referred as Packet.

** Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers.

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4) :

Transport layer provides services to application layer and takes services from network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the End to End delivery of the complete message. Transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
• At sender’s side:
Transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers, performs Segmentation and also implements Flow & Error control to ensure proper data transmission. It also adds Source and Destination port number in its header and forwards the segmented data to the Network Layer.
Note: The sender need to know the port number associated with the receiver’s application.
Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or manually. For example, when a web application makes a request to a web server, it typically uses port number 80, because this is the default port assigned to web applications. Many applications have default port assigned.
• At receiver’s side:
Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards the Data which it has received to the respective application. It also performs sequencing and reassembling of the segmented data.

The functions of the transport layer are :

*Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer , breaks the message into smaller units . Each of the segment produced has a header associated with it. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
*Service Point Addressing: In order to deliver the message to correct process, transport layer header includes a type of address called service point address or port address. Thus by specifying this address, transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process.

The services provided by transport layer :

Connection Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process which include
– Connection Establishment
– Data Transfer
– Termination / disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgment, back to the source after a packet or group of packet is received. This type of transmission is reliable and secure.
Connection less service: It is a one phase process and includes Data Transfer. In this type of transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This approach allows for much faster communication between devices. Connection oriented Service is more reliable than connection less Service.

* Data in the Transport Layer is called as Segments.
** Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of the OS and communicates with the Application Layer by making system calls.
Transport Layer is called as Heart of OSI model.

5. Session Layer (Layer 5) :

This layer is responsible for establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions, authentication and also ensures security.
The functions of the session layer are :

Session establishment, maintenance and termination: The layer allows the two processes to establish, use and terminate a connection.
Synchronization : This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which are considered as synchronization points into the data. These synchronization point help to identify the error so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.
Dialog Controller : The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.

**All the below 3 layers(including Session Layer) are integrated as a single layer in TCP/IP model as “Application Layer”.
**Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network application itself. These are also known as Upper Layers or Software Layers.

SCENARIO:
Let’s consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through some Messenger application running in his browser. The “Messenger” here acts as the application layer which provides the user with an interface to create the data. This message or so-called Data is compressed, encrypted (if any secure data) and converted into bits (0’s and 1’s) so that it can be transmitted.

6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6) :

Presentation layer is also called the Translation layer.The data from the application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network.
The functions of the presentation layer are :

*Translation : For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
*Encryption/ Decryption : Data encryption translates the data into another form or code. The encrypted data is known as the cipher text and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.

7. Application Layer (Layer 7) :

At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find Application layer which is implemented by the network applications. These applications produce the data, which has to be transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a window for the application services to access the network and for displaying the received information to the user.
Ex: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger etc.
**Application Layer is also called as Desktop Layer.

The functions of the Application layer are :

*Network Virtual Terminal
*FTAM-File transfer access and management
*Mail Services
*Directory Services

OSI model acts as a reference model and is not implemented in Internet because of its late invention. Current model being used is the TCP/IP model.

Please write comments if you find anything incorrect, or you want to share more information about the topic discussed above.

SOURCE:

Prerequisite : Basics of Computer Networking OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It has been developed by ISO – ‘International Organization of Stan

18/04/2021

PREAMBLES OF WEBSITE DEVELOPMENT
This contains brief description about world wide web as well as additional knowledge about the web.
Do you own a website? Are you a developer, designer, digital marketer? It is of essence you get familiar with some of this synopsis as it will guide you throughout the stage of development and design.

*** The World Wide Web (Website) ***
Have you felt the need to share information about yourselves or an organization across the world? Or peradventure you might have tried to reach out to large volume of people in order to advertise your products and services. The Website is a place where all these can be achieved.
It creates database for all users and makes data readily available for anyone who source for information. In other words, it’s best described as a “web-based virtual computer” which can be remotely accessed by any other computer i.e. smartphones, laptops, palmtops etc.

Example of websites includes; Blog, Online store, Portfolio etc.

*** THE BLOG ***
Blogging has little or no history to what is it today but, the basic fact to understand about blogs is; that it’s a designated platform on the World Wide Web where frequent trends (updates) are displayed and emphasized.

This information can be viewed by anyone (users) across the world. Due to its powerful effect on social media marketing, it creates room for the advertisements of trendy product and services available in the market which can be displayed on its front page. Also, it’s a powerful tool used in disseminating of information across multiple platforms.

BlogSpot are usually handled and monitored by skilled professionals who are proficient in effective delivery of information at regular interval, they are also known as “Bloggers”

Qualities of a proficient Blogger;
• Creativity
• Current (Trendy)
• Inquisitive
• Knowledgeable
• Organized
• Strong work ethics
• Network knowledgeable
• Social psychology

*** ONLINE PORTFOLIO ***
As the name implies, these online sites is made up of one or more web pages containing vital information about a person or organization. It necessarily does not display updates on regular bases but they are made periodically.

Most organizations often refer their clients to their online portfolio where information about the company are been indexed. There they can read about the company, make recommendations; fill out forms, and contact them.

Most individual who has online portfolio index their CV’s and Resumes as well as other vital information about them like project they have worked on, client’s they have worked with, testimonials and full details about their residence and other contacts information.

Online portfolios are usually made up of static web pages unless they need arise to update the web pages or make amendments.

*** ONLINE STORE ***
Online shopping is a form of electronic commerce which allows customers to directly buy goods or services from a seller over the internet using web browser. Consumers find a product of interest by visiting the website of the retailer directly or by searching among alternative vendors using a shopping search engine which displays the same product's availability and pricing at different e-tailers.

An online shop evokes the physical analogy of buying products or services at a regular “bricks-and-mortar” retailer or shopping center; the process is called Business-to-Consumer (B2C) online shopping. When an online store is set up to enable businesses to buy from another business, the process is called Business-to-Business (B2B) online shopping. A typical online store enables the customer to browse the firm's range of products and services, view photos or images of the products, along with information about the product, specifications, features and prices.
Online stores typically enable shoppers to use "search" features to find specific models, brands or items and place order. Some online store allow payment at installment while some provides features such as “shop cart” for ordered products to be saved until payment is due but on the contrary that the customer must have an account with them or other means of validation. Online customers must have access to the Internet and a valid method of payment in order to complete a transaction, such as a credit card, an Internet-enabled debit-card, or a gateway service such as Paypal.
For physical products (e.g., paperback, books or clothes), the e-tailer ships the products to the customer; but for digital products, such as digital audio files of songs or software, the e-tailer typically sends the file to the customer over the Internet.

Other terminologies;

 Website Designer
Just like a graphics designer, the website designer is a highly skilled professional who is both creative and technically inclined, and uses both these attributes to build or redesign websites. The web designer has the ability to understand what is needed to make a website functional and easy to use, but at the same time makes it aesthetically appealing to the user. The aesthetic aspect is an important one and selecting the appropriate colors, font, layout and images creates the whole personality of the website.
The website designer is the brain work of what the user see when visiting a website thus, the creation of a fully standard website lies in the hands of a competent website designer.

 Website Manager
Building a website is not just enough; an effective management technique is also required. Large organizations with mass volume of operations often deploy workers with special training to handle some managerial aspect of their website, as it represents the organization on the world-wide-web platform.
They are different types of website Managers such as; Network Operations Manager, Customer Information Center Manager, Business Intelligence Manager, Information Security Manager, Operating Systems Programming Manager, Systems Consultant/Engineering Manager, Content Manager - Web, ecommerce Manager (SEO expert), Customer Segment Manager (customer care) etc.

Below are duties of a website manager;
• Fixed bugs and errors on the website; e.g. 404, error pages etc.
• Respond to mail deliveries
• Act as online customer care to attend to site visitor via live chat or email; they take user’s feedbacks and satisfaction survey over their experience on the website.
• Sometimes they correct errors omitted by the website designer during the process of site construction and includes third parties
• They give annual reports of customers experience i.e. “Testimonials”

 Contributors
These are group of individuals who put in various resources, ideas and taught in order to achieve updated stories on the site, they are otherwise known as “coordinators”, they coordinate the activities of a website.

 Client’s Interface
This is a graphical/user-friendly interface of a website where users can easily work on; it is what you see when visiting a website.

 Server
Unlike the client’s interface, this is a programmable and technical aspect of a website which is handled by skilled technical professionals known as “Website Developers/Server Managers” thus; it is the bedrock of the user interface.

*** HAPPY SUNDAY ***

Source: CrestSphere